Socialization


 * Definition**

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the concept of socialization is related to the French term, //socialisation//, “to make suitable for society, to make collective,” and was used in the mid-19th century. The OED’s definition that best reflects contemporary scholars’ understanding, views it as a process in which an individual forms associations with others and learns to function in a particular society or group by internalizing its values, norms, and ideologies.


 * Disciplinary Literature**

Traditional theories have viewed socialization as a process that begins early on in a child’s development and continues on throughout their lifetime (Youniss, 1980). During socialization, the individual and the collective both actively contribute to the production and reproduction of behavior, society, and culture (Gaskins, Miller, & Corsaro, 1992). Socialization is primarily rooted in the argument that while beliefs and behaviors can be partially explained by genetics, the environment and social experiences will also be significant in their formation. This has been heavily influenced by theories that postulate that meaning is socially constructed (e.g., social learning theory, Bandura, 1977; social information processing theory, Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). As a result, socialization helps develop one’s morals (Kohlberg, 1968; 1981), cognition (Piaget, 1965), personality (Hurrelmann, 1988), and sense of self (Cooley, 1902; Goffman, 1959). Today, socialization has been studied extensively within various disciplines, including sociology, psychology, political science, and education.


 * Socialization and Communication Studies**

Within communication, socialization has been defined as an interdependent and interactional learning process where an individual will orient “oneself within systems of meaning” (Miller, 1996, p. 183). Through socialization, the individual will resolve any felt uncertainty and develop a gradual understanding of how other members view reality and adjust his or her own perceptions (O’Keefe & Delia, 1985). Other definitions understand it as “a process of mutual adjustment that produces changes over time in the relationship between a person and a group” (Moreland & Levine, 2001, p. 69).

Socialization research has typically held two approaches, the first of which focuses on what is learned, while the second focuses on how socialization happens and why it occurs (Ashforth, Sluss, & Harrison, 2007). The former approach has tended to place greater emphasis on distal issues, such as the content provided and sought after, while the latter focuses more on proximal factors, such as the proactive behaviors exhibited.


 * Families and Socialization**

While socialization for young adults can occur in various social domains, such as school or youth organizations, or jobs, the family has been identified as the main site for learning, with parents in particular being especially influential in socialization (Bigelow, Tesson, & Lewko, 1996). This can take place during discussions and interactions regarding subjects such as religion (Boyatzis, Dollahite, & Marks, 2006 ), health (Billingham, 2007), and values (Grusec, 2002).

As a result, family communication has been related to the development of societal expectations (Ritchie & Fitzpatrick, 1990), social-cognitive schemes needed for interpersonal communication (Applegate, Burke, Burleson, Delia, & Kline, 1985), racial socialization (Coard, Wallace, Stevenson, & Brotman, 2004), and occupational related issues, such as vocational choice and work attitudes (Jablin, 2001). Others have examined socialization on the development of children’s emotions ( Thompson & Meyer, 2007) and attitudes regarding love and romantic relationships (Bell O’Neil, Kline, & Fay, 2008; Hendrick, Hendrick, & Adler, 1988).


 * Socialization and Organizations**

The bulk of communication literature on socialization has been within the context of organizations, with more recent developments in research on groups (Myers, 2009). Organizational socialization is the process in which an individual will become part of the organization's pattern of activities (Anderson, Riddle, & Martin 1999). This has been closely related and used synonymously with assimilation, as the “ongoing behavioral and cognitive processes by which individuals join, become integrated into, and exit organizations” (Jablin & Krone, 1987, p. 712). These definitions reflect “the impact of both the organization on the individual and the individual on the organization” (Ashforth et al., 2007, p. 1). For example, the organization may implement institutionalized socialization tactics, such as mentoring or training ( Jones, 1986 ; Van Maanen & Schein, 1979), while the individual may participate in socialization by seeking feedback (Ashford, 1986) or through information-seeking (Ashford & Black, 1996; Miller & Jablin, 1991).

__Stages of Socialization__ Socialization is especially evident during periods of transitions, with the majority of research focusing on organizational entry (Jablin & Krone, 1987; Louis, 1980). However, socialization is continuous throughout an individual’s career (Reio & Callahan, 2004) and will be repeated as new memberships are formed. A phase model can help in understanding the process (Miller, 2009):
 * 1) //Anticipatory// – the information from earlier socialization experiences that the individual has before entry ( Van Maanen, 1976).
 * 2) //Encounter// – when the individual enters the organization and attempts to make sense of and adapt by letting go of previously held roles, values, and expectations (Louis, 1980).
 * 3) //Metamorphosis// – considered the stage of completion, where the individual is accepted as an insider and can participate in the organization by “learning new behaviors and attitudes and/or modifying existing ones” (Jablin & Krone, 1987, p. 713).

__Content of Organizational Socialization__ Louis (1980) proposed that the content of socialization can be categorized into two types of information:
 * Organizational norms and culture
 * Role-related (e.g,. skills, procedures, or rules of the job) (Jablin, 1987).

According to Van Maanen & Schein (1979), learning this provides the individual with “a kind of knowledge shared by experienced organizational members” that “guides them in interaction and decision making” (as cited in Myers, 2009, p. 139). Myers and Oetzel (2003) provide greater detail about the socialization processes involved with this content:
 * Developing a familiarity with others
 * Acculturating, or learning the organizational culture
 * Feeling recognition from others
 * Becoming involved in the organization
 * Developing job competency
 * Negotiating roles

__ Outcomes of Organizational Socialization __ Unsuccessful socialization can lead to negative consequences like role ambiguity, burnout, and increased turnover (Saks & Ashforth, 1997). On the other hand, effective socialization can lead to outcomes including organizational identification (Saks & Ashforth, 1997), communication satisfaction (e.g., Anderson & Martin, 1999), and organizational commitment (Ashforth et al., 2007; Reio & Callahan, 2004).

Written by Stacy Kim (August, 2012).

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 * References **

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Applegate, J. L., Burke, J. A., Burleson, B. R., Delia, J. G., & Kline, S. L. (1985). Reflection enhancing parental communication. In I. E. Sigel (Ed.), //Parental belief systems// (107-142). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Ashford, S. J. (1986). Feedback-seeking in individual adaptation: A resource perspective. //Academy of Management Journal, 29//(3), 465-487.

Ashford, S. J., & Black, S. J. (1996). Proactivity during organizational entry: The role of desire for control. //Journal of Applied Psychology, 81//(2), 199-214.

Ashforth, B. E., Sluss, D. M., & Harrison, S. H. (2007). Socialization in organizational contexts. In G. P. Hodgkinson & J. K. Ford (Eds.), //International review of industrial and organizational psychology// (Vol. 22, 1-70). Chichester, England: Wiley

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