Decision+Making


 * Definition **

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), decision making is a compound of the concept, “decision,” which stems back to the 14th century with French and Latin roots and “making,” which was first used in the 15th century regarding production. However, it wasn’t until the 20th century when “decision making” was used together and is today defined as: “the action of deciding (a contest, a controversy, a question, etc.)" and “the making up of one’s mind on any point or on a course of action; a resolution, determination” (OED).


 * Normative, Descriptive, and Prescriptive Approaches **

Research on decision-making can be distinguished into three categories and reflect the disciplines that have contributed and studied these processes (Bell, Raiffa, & Tversky, 1988): normative, descriptive, and prescriptive. Traditional research on the theory of decision-making was normative and examined how people //should// make decisions (Eisenhardt & Zbaracki, 1992). In doing so, normative approaches emphasized rationality and maximum utility for making decisions (Edwards, 1954; March & Simon, 1958).

More recent research on decision-making has largely been descriptive and/or prescriptive in their approach. Descriptive research examines //how// the process behind decision-making actually occurs, while prescriptive takes on a more consultant approach by examining how decision making can be //improved// and what constitutes good decisions (Bell et al., 1988). This shift away from the normative was due to the recognition that how decisions are made can lead to certain outcomes, making some processes better than others. These approaches are reflected in communication studies and are distinguished in this entry when relevant.


 * Public Policy **

Scholars view decision-making as public participation and explore how various stakeholders (e.g., citizens, industry representatives, governmental agencies) can impact decision making processes, such as environmental issues (Depoe, Delicath, & Elsenbeer, 2004). This research examines how engagement in decision-making is impacted by the ways in which problems and solutions are communicatively defined and framed (Depoe et al., 2004).


 * Health Communication **

Health communication research on decision-making focuses on the communication that occurs between patient-provider, patient-family, and among health professionals in making decisions. This research focuses on how decisions are made regarding treatment and prevention options (Marks, Ok, Joung, & Allegrante, 2010; Quillin, Tracy, Ancker, Mustian, Ellington, Viswanath, Miller, 2009), donor decisions (Brown et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2010), and health risk communication (Ozanne, Wittenberg, Garber, Weeks, 2010). This research tends to be both descriptive and prescriptive in approach, as the potential health outcomes studied are crucial and linked to illnesses such as cancer (Marks et al., 2010).

In these contexts, decision-making is usually shared, defined as “a process in which the patient and providers consider outcome probabilities and patients’ preferences and reach a health care decision based on mutual agreement” (Orchard, King, Khalili, & Bezzina, 2012, p. 60). Embedded in this is an emphasis on the active role of the patient and the process as being a patient-centered partnership (Butz, Walker, Pulsifer, & Winklestein, 2007; Thistlethwaite, Evans, Tie, & Heal, 2006).


 * __Crisis Communication __**

In the context of crisis communication, researchers often examine how group decision-making can cause crises, how the process occurs during crises, and how decision making functions after the crisis occurs (Seeger, Sellnow, & Ulmer, 1998). This research primarily reflects practitioner-oriented applications or theory-grounded understandings (Seeger et al., 1998), and examines areas such as emergency management (Richardson & Byer, 2006).

Richardson and Byers (2006) note that power and influence are vital for decision-making, which creates especially unique conditions for how the process occurs in organizational emergencies and crises contexts. For instance, Janis and Mann (1977) explain how decision makers may either be unable to make a choice or will be hastily pick the first available option. Furthermore, research suggests decision-making becomes centralized in organizations when responding to crisis (Dutton, 1986; Hermann, 1963).


 * Organizational and Group Communication **

In organizational communication, decision-making is defined as “an integrated sequence of activities that includes gathering, interpreting, and exchanging information; creating and identifying alternative courses of action; choosing among alternatives by integrating the often differing perspectives of team members; and implementing a choice and monitoring its consequences” (Thompson, 2004, p. 127). Miller (2009) explains how this concept is also referred to as employee participation (e.g., Lock & Schweiger, 1979) or employee involvement (e.g., Cotton, 1993) and is examined within organizational group and teams (e.g., Kuhn & Poole, 2000; Putnam, 1986). Within groups, decision-making is defined as “the ability to choose among various courses of action under uncertainty, using all perspectives and data that can be efficiently obtained to inform the decision” (Hackman, 2002, p. 225).

According to Miller (2009), decision making is no longer understood “as an isolated process but rather as an ongoing system that is integrated into structures and behaviors throughout the organization” (p. 153). Siebold and Shea (2004) explain that decision-making research is “concerned with either how its various forms are evidenced in practice or what it means as an ideal to be valued” (p. 694).

__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Descriptive Models __<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">: examine how organizational decisions are made by individuals and groups (Miller, 2009):
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Traditional Model of Rationality //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> – rational process where the best solution to an organizational problem is carefully chosen (Nutt, 1984)
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Optimizing Model //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> – //satisficing// process based not on a single optimal solution, but rather one that will work well enough for the situation (March & Simon, 1958)
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Intuitive Model //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> – process is intuitive in nature and made without conscious knowledge of how or why, but based on past experiences (Barnard, 1938)

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">While participation in organizational decision-making ranges from being forced or voluntary, and formal or informal (Siebold & Shea, 2004), understanding these processes have leaned towards prescriptive studies on of what kinds of decisions are more effective than others (Hackman & Walton, 1986). For example, in Kuhn and Poole’s study on conflict management and groups (2000), they suggest that the conceptual definition of decision making effectiveness incorporates both performance and subjective outcomes. Other outcomes include role burnout (Miller et al., 1990), satisfaction (Miller & Monge, 1986), resistance to change (Coch & French, 1948), message flow (O’Reilly, Chatman, & Anderson, 1987), and self-efficacy (Koy, 2002).

__Prescriptive Models__: examine who participates and why this can lead to valuable outcomes (Miller, 2009):
 * Affective – based on human relations theory, individuals that participate in organizational practices will satisfy their needs and therefore, be more cooperative and productive
 * Cognitive Model – based on human resources theory, individuals at the “bottom” of the hierarchy will know the most and therefore, participation will result in higher quality information and a better decision (Ritchie & Miles, 1970)

Stacy Kim (August 2012).

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 * References**

Barnard, C. I. (1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bell, D. E., Raiffa, H., & Tversky, A. (1988). Descriptive, normative, and prescriptive interactions in decision making. In D. Bell, H. Raiffa, & A. Tversky (Eds.), //Decision making: Descriptive, normative, and prescriptive interactions//, (pp. ix-9). Cambridge University Press.

Butz, A. M., Walker, J. M., Pulsifer, M., & Winkelstein, M. (2007). Shared decision making in school age children with asthma. //Pediatric Nurs//., //33//(2): 111- 116.

Decision. (2012). In //Oxford English Dictionary online//. Retrieved July 10, 2012, from [|http://www.oed.com.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/view/Entry/48173#eid7324134]

Depoe, S. P., Delicath, J. W., & Aepli Elsenbeer, M. (2004). //Communication and public participation in environmental decision making//. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Dutton, J. (1986). The processing of crisis and non-crisis strategic issues. //Journal of Management Studies//, //23//(5), 501-517.

Edwards, W. (1954). The theory of decision making. //Psychological Bulletin//, 51(4), 380-417.

Eisenhardt, K. M., & Zbaracki, M. J. (1992). Strategic decision making. //Strategic Management Journal//, //13//, 17-37.

Hackman, J. R., & Walton, R. E. (1986). Leading groups in organizations. In P. S. Goodman (Ed.), //Designing effective work groups// (pp. 72-119). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hermann, C. 1963. Some consequences of crisis which limit the viability of organizations. //Administrative Science Quarterly//, //8//, 61-82.

Janis, I. L., & Mann, L. (1977). //Decision making: A psychological analysis of conflict, choice, and commitment//. New York: Free Press.

Kuhn, T., & Poole, M. S. (2000). Do conflict management styles affect group decision making? Evidence from a longitudinal field study. //Human Communication Research//, //26//(4), 558-590.

Making. (2012). In //Oxford English Dictionary online//. Retrieved from http://www.oed.com.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/view/Entry/112669?rskey=1XJSj3&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid

March, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1958). //Organizations//. New York: Wiley.

Marks, R., Ok, Haean, Joung, H., & Allegrante, J. P. (2010). Perceptions about collaborative decisions: Percieved provider effectiveness among 2003 and 2007 health information national trends survey (HINTS) respondents. Journal of Health Communication, 15, 135-146.

Miller, K. (2009). Organizational communication: Approaches and processes (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Miller, K. I., & Monge, P. R. (1986). Participation, satisfaction, and productivity: A meta-analytic review. //Academy of Management Journal//, //29//, 727-753.

Mishra, A. K. (1996). Organizational responses to crisis: The centrality of trust. In R. M. Kramer & T. Tyler (Eds.), //Trust in Organizations// (pp. 261-287). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Nutt, P. C. (1984). Types of organizational decision making processes. //Administrative Science Quarterly//, //29//, 414-450.

Orchard, C. A., King, G. A., Khalili, H., & Bezzina, M. B. (2012). Assessment of interprofessional team collaboration scale (AITCS): Development and testing of the instrument. //Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions//, //32//(1), 58-67.

Ozanne, E. M., Wittenberg, E., Garber, J. E., Weeks, J. C. (2012). Breast cancer prevention: patient decision making and risk communication in the high risk setting. //The Breast Journal//, //16//(1), 38-47.

Quillin, J. M., Tracy, K., Ancker, J. S., Mustian, K. M., Ellington, L. Viswanath, V., & Miller, S. M. (2009). Health care system approaches for cancer patient communication. //Journal of Health Communication//, //14//, 85-94.

Richardson, B. K., & Byers, L. (2006). Communication studies and emergency management: Common ground, contributions, and future research opportunities for two emerging disciplines. In D. A. McEntire (Ed.), //Disciplines, disasters and emergency management: The convergence and divergence of concepts, issues and trends from the research literature//. Retrieved from []

Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., & Roach, K. D. (1997). Communication and decision-making styles, power base usage, and satisfaction in marital dyads. //Communication Quarterly//, //45//(4), 410-426.

Seeger, M. W. (2006). Best practices in crisis communication: An expert panel process. //Journal of Applied Communication Research//, //34//(3), 232-244.

Seeger, M. W., Sellnow, T. L., Ulmer, R. R. (1998). Communication, organization, and crisis. //Communication Yearbook, 21//, 231-275.

Seibold, D. R. & Shea, B. C. (2004). Participation and decision making. In F. M. Jablin & L. L. Putnam (Eds.), //The new handbook of organizational communication. Advances in theory, research, and methods// (664-703). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Thistlethwaite, J., Evans, R., Tie, R. N., & Heal, C. (2006). Shared decision making and decision aids: A literature review. //Aust Fam Physician//, //35//(7), 537-540.

Thompson, L. L. (2004). //Making the team: A guide for managers// (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.