Organizational+Culture


 * Etymology**

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the word “organization” originates from the Middle French word //organization// and post-classical Latin //organization//. Organization was originally used in the fifteenth century to describe the coordination of body parts to carry out vital functions, also discussed as an organism. From the late eighteenth century until today, the concept has described an organized group of individuals working together with a particular purpose. The word “culture” originates from the Anglo-Norman and Middle French word //culture//. It was originally used as the cultivation of land, and later used as the development of the mind or improvement by education and training. According to the OED culture is currently used to describe “the distinctive ideas, customs, social behaviors, products, or way of life of a particular nation, society, people, or period.”


 * Definition**

Edgar Schein, a prominent scholar in the study of organizational culture who is cited in most literature on the subject, has defined the concept as: “a pattern of shared basic assumptions that was learned by a group as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” (Schein, 2004, p. 17). Schein is one of the most influential scholars in organizational culture because he created a framework for analyzing the culture of an organization (Hatch, 1993, p. 657). Other scholars have similar definitions of organizations, like Redmon and Mason who define culture as generally being “analyzed in terms of three components: outcomes important to survival, practices of organizational members, and linkages between outcomes and practices” (Redmon & Mason, p. 439).

“An organization’s culture comes from the physical environment, leadership (specifically the leadership of the organization’s founders), and past successes or failures” (Scott, 2005, p.59). While some scholars say that culture is formed by both the management and employees (Keyton, 2005; Krizek, 2005), many argue that it is formed by the founding members of an organization (Schein, 2004; Scott, 2005; Ashkanasy et al., 2000; Hofstede et al., 1990).

Organizational culture is broken into three levels. The first level is artifacts which consists visible organizational structures and processes which are often hard to decipher (Schein, 2004). The second level is espoused beliefs and values which involve strategies, goals, philosophies of the organization. The final level is underlying assumptions which features the unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings, this is also the ultimate source of values and action (Schein, 2004, Figure 2.1 p. 26).

According to Scott (2005), every organization has two types of organizational culture, the observable culture and the core culture. The observable culture consists of the stories, heroes, rites and rituals, as well as the symbols that people hear or see on a regular basis (Scott, 2005). The core culture is unseen and is a reflection of the values that influence the individual behavior of employees. Some of the individuals’ values include “performance excellence, innovation, social responsibility, worker involvement, and quality of work life” (Scott, 2005, p. 60).


 * How to Measure/Research culture**

Due to the fact that the norms of the culture are subconscious to the members, it is difficult to study culture without interfering in some way. “Anthropologists have found that they can research via ethnographic research but they must be careful not to influence the culture in any way” (Ashkanasy et al., 2000, p. xxvi). It is incredibly difficult to measure culture quantitatively due to the fact that it is so embedded in an organization; it would be difficult to create a scale, survey, or questionnaire that could effectively measure culture. If one wanted to examine organizational culture, one would have to immerse themselves into the culture by becoming a member themselves and working with the members on a routine basis in order to learn the norms, values, and beliefs of the members of the organization (Denison, 1996). Ashkanasy et al. (2000) believes that when an individual analyzes organizational cultures, he or she should understand the organization’s histories, find out about the founders and early leaders, be aware of the critical defining events in the organization’s evolution and when this has been accomplished, one can “indeed describe sets of shared assumptions that derive from common experiences of success and shared traumas” (Ashkanasy et al., 2000, p. xxv).


 * How Organizational Culture has been researched**

Scholars have studied many different aspects and uses of organizational culture. Organizational culture has been studied in relation to the level of commitment that members have to an organization and the impact on employees’ job satisfaction (Shah et al., 2012). Conflict among members is another topic that is often studied in relation to organizational culture. Other scholars have examined the role of leadership and the impact on organizational culture (Schein, 2004), whether that be solely the impact or how culture can change with new leadership. Some scholars have even examined the relationship between organizational culture and customer orientation (Ghorbani et al., 2012). However, many scholars have used ethnographies in order to study the culture of an organization (Jaques, 1951; Dalton, 1959; Rohlen, 1974; Schein, 1985; Kunda, 1992). Other types of works that have added to organizational culture literature are descriptions of cultural analyses (Whyte, 1949; Barley, 1983; Martin, Sitkin, and Boehm, 1985).

Scholars who study culture are often concerned with the evolution of social systems in an organization throughout time (Schein, 1985, 1990). Although some people might confuse organizational climate and organizational culture, they are very different. Scholars who study culture examine the norms, values, underlying assumptions and members’ point of view of the organization, while climate researchers argue that the importance lies in the members’ perceptions of practices and procedures in the organizational life (Denison, 1996).

Written by Kala Finley (August, 2012).

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 * References**

Ashkanasy, N. M., Vilderom, C., Peterson, M. F. (2000). //Handbook of organizational culture and climate//. Sage Publications, Inc.Thousand Oaks,CA.

Barley, S. R. (1983). Semiotics and the study of occupational and organizational cultures. //Administrative// S//cience Quarterly, 28//, 393-413.

Bellot, J. (2011). Defining and assessing organizational culture. //Nursing Forum, 46//(1), 29-37.

Dalton, M. (1959). //Men Who Manage//. New York: Wiley.

Denison, D. R. (1996). What is the difference between organizational culture and organizational climate? A native’s point of view on a decade of paradigm wars. //The Academy of Management Review, 21//(3), 619-654.

Fryxell, G. E., & Cleave, K. V. (1989). The foundations of the organizational culture literature: An integrative framework. //International Journal of Value Based Management, 2//(1), 31-43.

Ghorbani, H., Seyedeh, M. A. D., Khorsandnejad, A. (2012). An empirical investigation of the relationship between organizational culture and customer orientation: The mediating effect of knowledge management (an empirical study in the household appliance industry in Iran). //International Journal of Marketing Studies, 4//(3), 58-67.

Hatch, Mary Jo (1993). The dynamics of organizational culture. //The Academy of Management Review 18//(4), 657-693.Academy of Management.

Hofstede, G., Neuijen, B., Ohayv, D.D., Sanders, G. (1990). Measuring Organizational Cultures: A qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases. //Administrative Science Quarterly, 35//(2), 286-316.

Isaksen, S. G., & Ekvall, G. (2007). //Assessing the context for change: A technical manual for the situational outlook questionnaire//. Orchard Park,NY: The Creative Problem Solving Group.

Jaques, E. (1951). //The Changing Culture of a Factory.// New York: Dryden Press.

Keyton, J. (2005). //Communication and organization culture: A key to understanding work experiences//.Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage.

Krizek, R. (2005). A meaning-centered approach to consulting: Contributing as an engaged communication scholar. In J. L. Simpson, & P. Shockley-Zalabak (Eds.), //Engaging communication, transforming organizations: Scholarship of engagement in action// (pp. 127-146). Cresskill, NJ: HamptonPress.

Kunda, G. (1992). //Engineering Culture//. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Martin, J., Sitkin, S., & Boehm, M. (1985). Founders and the elusiveness of a cultural legacy. In P. Frost, L. Moore, M. Louis, C. Lundberg, & J. Martin (Eds.), //Organizational Culture// (99-124). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Mats, A. (1990). On the popularity of organizational culture. //Acta Sociologica// (Taylor & Francis Ltd), //33//(1), 31-49.

Redmon, W. K., Mason, M. A., Johnson, C., & Mawhinney, T. C. (2001). Chapter 17:Organizational culture and behavioral systems analysis. In: //Handbook of Organizational Performance: Behavior Analysis & Management// (99. 437-456). Haworth Press, Inc.

Rohlen, T. (1974). //For harmony and strength: Japanese white-collar organization in anthropological// //perspective//. Berkley: University of California Press.

Schein, E. (1985). //Organizational culture and leadership.// San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schein, E. (1990). Organizational culture. //American Psychologist, 45//: 109-119.

Shah, S. M. A., Jatoi, M. A., and Memon, M. S. (2012). The impact of organizational culture on the employees’ job satisfaction & organizational commitment: A study of faculty members of private sector universities of Pakistan. //Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3//(11), 809-829.

Schein, E. (2004). //Organizational culture and leadership//. Jossey-Bass,San Francisco,CA.

Scott-Findlay, S., &Estabrooks,C.A.(2006). Mapping the organizational culture research in nursing: a literature review. //Journal of Advanced Nursing, 56//(5), 498-513.

Scott, J. T. (2005). //Concise handbook of management: A practitioner’s approach.// Chapter 7, p. 53-62. Haworth Press, Inc.,Binghamton: NY.

Scott, T., Mannion, R., Davies, H., & Marshall, M. (2003). The quantitative measurement of organization culture in health care: a review of the available instruments. //Health Services Research, 38//(3), 923-945.