Whiteness


 * Introduction**

Whiteness is a socially constructed term commonly used in the United States to designate a racial category or a social or economic position (Nayak, 2007; Baldwin, 2011). In recent years, whiteness studies have increased the interrogation of the invisible and hegemonic discourse of whiteness in society, popular culture, and academia. Still, the contested nature of whiteness makes defining and outlining the parameters of the term a difficult job. The purpose of this article is to provide an introductory understanding of the concept of whiteness within the field of communication studies. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the complexity of whiteness will prevent a complete examination of the subject.


 * Definition**

References to the physical appearance and social identity of a specific group of people are key themes found in the many definitions of whiteness provided by the //Oxford English Dictionary//. According to the OED, whiteness refers to the light complexion of the human skin or face and the purity or stainless character or quality. The term whiteness is also used to signify ethnic types that are characterized by a light complexion or “European extraction.” This definition of whiteness specifically distinguishes people who are considered white from those who are “black, red, yellow, etc.” (//Oxford English Dictionary,// 2012). In one of the more significant entries, the OED defines whiteness as “morally or spiritually pure or stainless, spotless, unstained, innocent, or truthful.

According to the OED (2012), the term whiteness comes from the root word “white” and the suffix “ness.” White has Dutch, German, and Indo-European origins and the suffix, ness, has Old Saxon, Middle Low German, and Old English origins. The multiple definitions of whiteness provided by the OED illustrate the socially constructed and ideological nature of the term. Therefore, it is important to examine the OED’s definitions of whiteness not because the dictionary provides the definitive word on the topic, but because these definitions point the significance of a specific social identity within United States culture. It is important to study the concept of whiteness within the field of communication studies since many of its subfields take into consideration the social location of their research subjects.


 * Methods of Studying Whiteness**

Research studies that focus on the historical construction and representation of whiteness in popular discourse lay the foundation for the emerging field of whiteness studies. Many scholars of different races have interrogated the construction of whiteness in order to de-normalize its hegemonic social position and challenge its social invisibility within historical contexts, present day social culture, and futurity (Baldwin, 2011). Studies of whiteness use both quantitative and qualitative methods including surveys, ethnographies, textual analyses, and focus groups in order develop the framework of the concept. Whiteness is also studied in relationship to intercultural communication, colorblind racism and the reinforcement of whiteness within contemporary post-racial discourses (Bonilla-Silva, 2010). There are many topics associated with the study of whiteness includes, but is not limited to, strategies whites use to construct their own identities as white, the historical construction of whiteness, the representation of whiteness in media and popular culture, and the construction of whiteness within organizations.


 * //The Construction of a White Identity://** Nakayama and Krizek (1995) focused on how whites construct their ideas of whiteness for the purpose of disrupting the “everydayness” of whiteness and its resulting normalizing features. They found that whites use the following six rhetorical strategies to construct their self-identity as whites: (1) tying whiteness to power, (2) seeing whiteness as an opposition to people of color, (3) naturalizing whiteness as a scientific definition, (4) conflating whiteness with nationality (5) refusing to label oneself as white, and (6) relating whiteness to European ancestry. Each of these strategies, Nakayama and Krizek (1995) argue, centralizes whiteness within United States culture while marginalizing the experiences of people of color. Similar research on whiteness seeks to examine the cultural identifiers of whiteness Krizek (2006) and white privilege McIntosh (1990).


 * //Media Studies://** The representation of whiteness is a significant topic in media studies and popular culture. According to Shohat and Stam (1994), media representations of whiteness are important to understanding representation of people of color in film. Their ethnicities-in-relation approach to studying media places the emphasis on the relationship between the representations of whites and people of color in order to complicate the understandings of race in media. Other studies of whiteness in media focus on white representation and critical reception of white savior/messiah films (Hughey, 2010). Vera and Gordon’s (2003) examination of the white messiah complex in film emphasizes the significance of whiteness in media representation. They claim the white messiah complex marginalizes people of color by reinforcing the fiction that whiteness is a universal moral good. In order to complicate static representations of race within media, scholars use whiteness as a tool to understand people of color and other marginalized groups.


 * //Organizational Communication://** Whiteness is a key construct in organization communication because it is used as a means to organize both work and economic advantages. Baldwin (2011) argues white supremacy in the United States can be traced through “the history and legacy of US slavery and labour politics” (p.176). Whiteness and white privilege became significant to organizations and their communication practices because they both operated as forms of economic currency. It is crucial to examine whiteness within organizations because is a normative construct that many of the policies, procedures (Ashcraft & Allen, 2003), and wages (Baldwin, 2011) are based. Ashcraft and Allen (2003) claim the normalization of whiteness within organizations influence worker’s positions of power and the types of jobs they are able to perform.


 * Problems with Studying Whiteness**

The study of whiteness in fields such as critical whiteness studies makes it difficult to determine whether whiteness is being reinforced or challenged. Many studies of whiteness seek to complicate or separate whiteness from its everyday invisibility, however, it is difficult to determine whether some of the authors are trying to re-center the position of whiteness or further anti-racist research. Whiteness studies also need to be mindful of essentialism. A goal of studying whiteness should not be to suggest that whites are a monolithic group who hold similar opinions about similar topics or behave in similar ways. Written by Kerry Wilson (July 2012).

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 * References**

Ashcraft, K. L., & Allen, B. J. (2003). The racial foundation of organizational communication. //Communication Theory//, //13//(1), 5-38. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2003.tb00280.

Baldwin, A. (2011). Whiteness and futurity: Towards a research agenda. //Progress in Human Geography//

Bonilla-Silva, E. (2010). //Racism without racists : Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States// (3 ed.) Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield

Hughey, M. W. (2010). The white savior film and reviewers' reception. //Symbolic Interaction//, 33(3), 475-496. doi:10.1525/si.2010.33.3.47

Krizek, R. (2006). Finding my whiteness: A narrative of cultural identification. In L. A. Samovar, R. E. Porter, & E. R. McDaniel (Eds.), //Intercultural communication: A reader// (Eleventh ed.) (pp. 61-70). United States: Thomas/Wadsworth

McIntosh, P. (1990). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. //Independent School//, 49(2), 31

Nakayama, T. K., & Krizek, R. L. (1995). Whiteness: A strategic rhetoric. //Quarterly Journal of Speech//, 81(3), 291-309

Nayak, A. (2007). Critical whiteness studies. //Sociology Compass//, 1(2), 737-755. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00045.

Ness (2012). In //Oxford English dictionary.// Retrieved from [|http://www.oed.com.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/view/Entry/126244?rskey=EJQvXx&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid]

Shohat, E., & Stam, R. (1994). //Unthinking Eurocentrism// : Multiculturalism and the media (illustrated, reprint ed.) London ; New York: Psychology Press

Vera, H., & Gordon, A. M. (2003). The beautiful American: Sincere fictions of the white messiah in Hollywood movies. In A. W. Doane & E. Bonilla-Silva (Eds.), //White out: The continuing significance of racism// (pp. 113-25). New York, NY: Routledge

White (2012). In //Oxford English dictionary.// Retrieved from [|http://www.oed.com.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/view/Entry/228564?rskey=lxlpqP&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid]

Whiteness (2012). In //Oxford English dictionary.// Retrieved from [|http://www.oed.com.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/view/Entry/228626?redirectedFrom=whiteness#eid]