Genre


 * Etymology and Definition**

Genre is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as “A particular style or category of works of art; esp. a type of literary work characterized by a particular form, style, or purpose,” (OED, 1, b). An alternate, Communication Studies-centric definition by John Hartley describes genre as “an analytical or meta-discursive term for the catergorisation of media texts according to shared internal (textual) characteristics.” (Hartley, 2002, 124).

The term derives from the Latin word //gener/genus,// meaning race or kind. The concept evolved into the Middle French and Anglo-Norman word meaning //gendre// meaning “kind,” specifically referring to the two genders. It is not until the late eighteenth century that the term gains its modern definition (OED, 1, a).


 * Genre and Rhetoric**

Aristotle argued that there were three branches, or genres, of rhetoric: deliberative, forensic, and epideictic (Hill, 1983, 24). The deliberative genre refers to rhetoric which attempts to persuade or dissuade the audience into action (Hill, 1983, 24). The forensic genre refers to rhetoric concerning legalities, specifically dealing with guilt and innocence (Hill, 1983, 24). The epideictic genre deals with ceremonial and commemorative rhetoric, meant to dispense praise as well as blame (Hill, 1983, 24). Aristotle also noted that the genre is defined by the type of audience, which then guides the purpose of the orator rather than the orator molding the audience and situation to a purpose, a notion that would be later echoed by Kenneth Burke (Jamieson and Campbell, 1982, 148).

Early literary scholars were particularly interested in literary kinds, which comprised much of the scholarship produced in the seventeenth century (Bawarshi, 2000, 336). In the eighteenth century, the trend evolved away from studying genres, as European scholars become more interested in studying the literary content and their authors, a focusing in on specific texts rather than those discussing a broader scope of works (Bawarshi, 2000, 336).

Russian philosopher and scholar Mikhail Bakhtin defined genres as situated utterances which revealed its conditions and goals, and is linked closely to literary elements (with the utterances referring to texts) rather than linguistic or semiotic (Prior, 2009, 19). He differentiated between primary (simple) and secondary (complex) speech genres, marking the differences between genres of everyday speech from more intricate communications such as novels and scientific research (Bakhtin, 1986, 62). It was through this understanding of these two types of genres that Bakhtin believed scholars will better understand the importance of genres in a number of special research areas (Bakhtin, 1986, 63).

Prior to the 1980s, genre scholarship often dealt with the concept as purpose-driven, specifically focusing on its characteristics (Swales, 2009, 3). The tide of scholarship began to shift away from genre analyses as a means of understanding the characteristics of a genre and towards understanding how genres are effected by the situation as much as the content of the rhetorical act (Askehave and Swales, 2001, 195). This is most notable in an article by Kathleen Hall Jamieson and Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, entitled “Rhetorical Hybrids: Fusions of Generic Elements.” Jamieson and Campbell argue that Aristotle’s genres can be fused together, and thus are integral in understanding more complex rhetorical forms (Jamieson and Campbell, 1982, 157).

Currently, genre analysis is less purpose-driven and more focused on understanding how writing for specific genres forms texts and audiences (Prior, 2009, 17). A genre’s content remains an important component of genre analysis, but the situation becomes increasingly important to thoroughly understanding the genre (Bawarshi and Reiff, 2010, 63). Style and structure are also key conventions that are studied in genre analyses, and have been applied to social actions beyond oratory functions (Bawarshi, 2000, 335). Some scholars have even theorized that genres themselves are integral to understanding how discourses, and the associated social roles, function (Bawarshi, 2000, 338).

The influential genre scholar John M. Swales defines genre as a linguistic and rhetorical action, which is linked to community goals (Bawarshi and Reiff, 2010, 45). Additionally, he postulates that genres morph in order to respond to various demands and are affected not only by the context of the moment of their creation but also the location (Swales, 2009, 5). This argument was later supported by Carol Berkenkotter and Thomas Huckin definition of genres, that they are “inherently dynamic rhetorical structures that can be manipulated according to the conditions of use” (Berkenkotter and Huckin, 1995, 477). Swales also argues that the texts perform the genre, rather than the genre as a performance of the texts it describes, which is a fundamentally different understanding of genre than that presented in eighteenth century scholarship (Swales, 2009, 14).


 * Genre and Media**

In media studies, genre studies as a field is most often related to cinema studies, where the focus is often the code and conventions of genres as represented in film (Hartley, 2002,124). According to Art Silverblatt, genres in media also help to provide insights into cultural myths by examining how certain themes are categorized, such as the nurturing family comedy represented how people envisioned the ideal family structure and environment (Silverblatt, 2007, 224-25). This also influences how a society views itself and its values, creating a set of media-curated cultural beliefs (Silverblatt, 2007, 227). Genres also help media deliver messages to the audience, either as direct manifest messages or indirect latent messages that often escape the viewers’ attention (Silverblatt, 2007, 4).

Similarly, genres can be viewed from a systems perspective, specifically used as a concept used for categorization as sets of systems that create formal and informal hierarchies (Swales, 2009, 4; Frow, 2006, 124-125). Stephen Neale defines genre in this context as “systems of orientation, expectations and conventions that circulate between industry, text, and subject,” (Neale, 1980, 19). As such, different discourses and practices live in generic families, which are linked by common characteristics or, rather, family resemblances (Fishelov, 1993, 65).

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 * References**

Askehave, I., & Swales, J. M. (2001). Genre Identification and Communicative Purpose: A Problem and a Possible Solution. //Applied Linguistics, 22//(2), 195-212.

Bakhtin, M. (1986). //Speech Genres & Other Late Essays// (//V. W. McGee//, Trans.). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

Bawarshi, A. (2000). The Genre Function. //College English, 62//(3), 335-360.

Bawarshi, A. S., & Reiff, M. J. (2010). //Genre: An Introduction to History, Theory, Research, and Pedagogy//. West Lafayette, Indiana: Parlor Press, LLC and The WAC Clearinghouse.

Berkenkotter, C. & Huckin, T. (1995), //Genre Knowledge in Disciplinary Communication//. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Campbell, K. K. and Jamieson, K. H. (Eds.) (1978) //Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action.// Falls Church, Va.: The Speech Communication Association.

Fishelov, David. (1993) //Metaphors of Genre: The Role of Analogies in Genre Theory//. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

Genre. (2015). The Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved (2015, July 28) from http://dictionary.oed.com

Hartley, J. (2002). //Communication, Cultural and Media Studies//. London: Routledge.

Jamieson, K. H., & Campbell, K. K. (1982). Rhetorical Hybrid: Fusions of Generic Elements. //Quarterly Journal of Speech, 68//, 146-157.

Larsen, P. (2012). Mediated Fictions. In K. B. Jensen (Ed.), //A Handbook of Media and// //Communication Research// (pp. 131-152). New York, NY: Routledge.

Murphy, J. J. (Eds.) (1983) //A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric.// Davis, Calif.: Hermagoras Press.

Neale, S. (1980) //Genre//. London: British Film Institute

Prior, P. (2009). From Speech Genres to Mediated Multimodal Genre Systems: Bakhtin, Voloshinov, and the Question of Writing. In A. B. Charles Bazerman, and Débora Figueiredo (Ed.), //Genre in a Changing World// (pp. 17-34). Fort Collins, Colorado: The WAC Clearinghouse and Parlor Press, LLC.

Silverblatt, A. (2007). //Genre Studies in Mass Media//. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe.

Swales, J. M. (2009). World of Genre -- Metaphors of Genre. In A. B. Charles Bazerman, and Débora Figueiredo (Ed.), //Genre in a Changing World// (pp. 3-16). Fort Collins, Colorado: The WAC Clearinghouse and Parlor Press, LLC.