Beliefs


 * Definition **

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the etymological roots of “belief” can be traced back to Middle English from Old English. Appearing around the late 12th century, “belief” used to refer to things held to be true due to religious doctrine, while “faith” referred to loyalty or allegiance to a person based on duty. Faith began to take on a religious connotation in the 14th century, and by the 16th century, the concept of “belief” was limited to our modern day, generalized definition: the mental acceptance of something as true (Belief, 2012).


 * Conceptualizing Beliefs **

Furinghetti  and Pehknonen  (2002) contend that conceptualizing or defining belief can be difficult due to the inability to clarify the relations between belief, knowledge , and other related concepts. Thus, the term belief is sometimes left undefined (e.g., Cooney, Shealy, & Arvold, 1998), or researchers give their own definitions of the term (e.g., Bassarear, 1989). Descriptions of belief are often constructed by contrasting belief with other concepts, such as attitude, values, judgment, ideology, etc. (Pajares, 1992).


 * Definitions of Beliefs **

Scholars from various fields have defined belief differently, depending on the context by which it is used. Brown and Cooney (1982) defined beliefs as dispositions to action and major determinants of behavior. Pajares (1992) proposed definitions of belief and cited Abelson (1979), who defined beliefs “in terms of people manipulating knowledge  for a particular purpose or under a necessary circumstance (p. 313). Sigel (1985) defined beliefs as “mental constructions of experience, often condensed and integrated into schemata or concepts that are held to be true and that guide behavior” (p. 313).

Scholars in social science fields have more or less agreed upon a commonly acknowledged definition of beliefs: “beliefs are thought of as psychologically held understandings, premises, or propositions about the world that are felt to be true” (Richardson, 1996, p.103).


 * Types of Beliefs **

Renowned social psychologist Milton Rokeach (1972), identified three different types of beliefs:
 * //Descriptive/existential beliefs // are verifiable statements about people, objects, and situations. Like factual statements, descriptive beliefs are objective statements that, in principle, can be shown to be true or false; correct or incorrect; valid or invalid (e.g., I believe Mars is a planet).
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Prescriptive/exhortatory beliefs //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">are statements about the appropriateness of a position or an activity in a given situation, advocated as desirable or undesirable (e.g., I believe it is desirable for citizens to vote in elections).
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Evaluative beliefs //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> are statements that reflect a general assessment of an attitude object. Evaluative beliefs can be stated as good or bad (e.g., I believe Colgate toothpaste is the best).


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Components of Beliefs **

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Rokeach (1972) also suggested that beliefs have three specific components:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">A //behavioral component// of a belief that leads to/influences action when triggered.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">An //affective component// of a belief that is capable of arousing affect of fluctuating intensity centering on the object of belief, taking a positive or negative position in an argument.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">A //cognitive component// of a belief that represents an individual’s knowledge of what is true or false.


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Knowledge and Beliefs **

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Scholars have attempted to distinguish knowledge from beliefs. According to Calderhead (1996), beliefs commonly refer to “suppositions, commitments, and ideologies” while knowledge refers to “factual propositions and the understandings that inform skillful action” (p. 715).

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The following table describing the distinctions between knowledge and beliefs is offered by Savasci-Acikalin (2009):
 * **__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Beliefs __** || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">**__Knowledge__** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Refer to suppositions, commitments, and ideologies || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Refers to factual propositions and the understandings that inform skillful action ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Do not require a truth condition || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Must satisfy “truth condition” ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Based on evaluation judgment || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Based on objective fact ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Cannot be evaluated || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Can be evaluated or judged ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Episodically-stored material influenced by personal experiences or cultural and institutional sources || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Stored in semantic networks ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Static || <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Often changes ||


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Beliefs and Theory **

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Beliefs are components/variables/entities within a variety of theories utilized by scholars in communication studies and other related disciplines.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The following is not an exhaustive list of relevant theories, but beliefs play some kind of role in informing or describing ideas pertaining to the theories listed below:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Contagion Theories (Monge & Contractor, 2003; Rice & Aydin, 1991)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger, 1957)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Expectancy Value Model (Fishbein, 1967; Fishbein, 1968; Fishbein, 1974; Palmgreen, 1984)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Network Theory and Analysis (Barnes, 1954; Rogers & Kincaid, 1981)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Theory of Reasoned Action/ Theory of Planned Behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Agenda Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw, 1972)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Cultivation Theory (Hawkins & Pingree, 1983)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Health Belief Model (Rosentock, Strecher, & Becker, 1966)

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Note: Distinctions between attitudes, beliefs, values, and opinions can be found on the attitude page.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">-Nathan McCullough 2012

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 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">References **

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Abelson, R. (1979). Differences between belief systems and knowledge systems. //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Cognitive Science, 3, //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> 355-366.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckman (Eds.), //Action-control: From cognition to behavior// (pp. 11-39). Heidelberg: Springer.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. //Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes//, //50//, 179-211.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Barnes, J. (1954). Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish. //Human Relations, 7,// 39-58.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Bassarear, T. J., (1989). The interactive nature of cognition and affect: two case studies. In C.A. Maher, G.A. Goldin, & R.B. Davis (Eds.). //Proceedings of the PME-NA-S// Vol 1 (pp. 3-10). Piscataway, NJ.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Belief. (n.d.). In Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved June 19, 2012 from http://dictionary.oed.com

<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Cooney, T. J., Shealy, B. E., & Arvold, B. (1998). Conceptualizing belief structures of preservice secondary mathematics programs. //Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 29//(3), 306-333.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Festinger, L. (1957). //A theory of cognitive dissonance.// Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Fishbein, M (1967). Attitude and the prediction of behaviour. In: Fishbein, M (Ed.). //Readings in attitude theory and measurement//. New York: Wiley.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Fishbein, M (1968). An investigation of relationships between beliefs about an object and the attitude towards that object. //Human Relationships//, //16//, 233-240.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Fishbein, M & Ajzen, I. (1974). Attitudes towards objects as predictors of single and multiple behavioural criteria.//Psychological Review//, //81(1)//, 29-74.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Fishbein, M. & Ajzen, I. (1975). //Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research//. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Furinghetti, F. & Pehknonen, E. (2002). Rethinking characterizations of beliefs. In G. C. Leder, E.

<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Pehkonen & G. Torner (Eds.), //Beliefs: A hidden variable in mathematics education?// (Vol. 31, pp. 39-57). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Hawkins R.P & Pingree, S. (1983). Televisions influence on social reality. In: Wartella, E., McCombs, M.E., & Shaw, D.L. (1972). The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media. //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Public Opinion Quarterly, 36 (Summer) //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">, 176-187.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Monge, P.E. & Contractor, N.S. (2003). //Theories of Communication Networks.// Oxford: University Press <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct.//Review of Educational Research, 62//(3), 307-332.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Palmgreen, P. (1984). Uses and gratifications: A theoretical perspective. In: Bostrom, R.N. (Ed.), //Communication Yearbook 8 (61-72//). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Rice, R.E. & Aydin, C. (1991). Attitudes toward new organizational technology: Network proximity as a mechanism for social information processing: //Administrative Science Quarterly, 9,// 219-244.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In J. Sikula (Ed.), //The handbook of research in teacher education// (2nd ed., pp.102-119). New York: Macmillan.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Rogers, E.M. & Kincaid, D.L. (1981). //Communication Networks: Toward a New Paradigm for Research//. New York: Free Press.

<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Rokeach, M. (1972). Beliefs, attitudes, and values: A theory of organization and change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

<span style="color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Rosenstock, I. (1974). Historical Origins of the Health Belief Model. //Health Education Monographs.//Vol. 2 No. 4. <span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Rosenstock I. R., Strecher V. J., & Becker M. H. (1988). Social learning theory and health belief model. //Health Education Quarterly//, 15(2), 175-183.

<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Savasci-Acikalin, F. (2009). Teacher beliefs and practice in science education. //Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 10//(12). Istanbul University.

<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Sigel, I. E. (1985). Parental concepts of development. In I. E. Sigel (Ed.), //Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for// children (pp. 83−105). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Thompson, A. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and conceptions: A synthesis of the research. In A. D. Grouws (Ed.), //Handbook of research on mathematics learning and teaching// (pp. 127-146). New York: Macmillan.